VMD 512 Notes

RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS - II AND SURGICAL INTERVENTIONS

·  This branch reveals the purposes of chemical restraint, different gadgets associated, characteristic of various drugs used for various restraint procedures and common surgical conditions in various wild animals.

The objectives are

·  To study the infra-structures used for chemical immobilization

·  To know about activities of various restraining drugs and anesthetics

·  To know about the commonly occurring surgical conditions in wild animals

PURPOSES OF CHEMICAL RESTRAINT

• Disease diagnostic purpose
• Therapeutic purpose
• Vaccination purpose
• Examination of highly excitable species
• Biological research purposes
• Veterinary research purposes
• Translocation
• Transfer
• Transport
• Wild animal conflicts related events (herbivore and   carnivore and omnivore may get associated with these conflicts)
• Random health assessment in free ranging areas
• Rescue purposes
• Management purposes

DRUG CHARACTERS

·  The drug characteristics that are expected with use of any type of chemical agent needs to be well understood before one resorts into chemical immobilization in any wild animal species.

·  This helps many times to avoid the untoward incidences that are likely to arise due to the chemical immobilization in case of wild fauna.

GADGETS USED FOR CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION

·  There are different kinds of gadgets that are being used to immobilize the wild animal species and these infrastructures are varying in terms of cost, procedure of usage, durability etc.

DIFFERENT GADGETS USEFUL FOR CHEMICAL RESTRAINT

·  There are various gadgets available for chemically immobilizing of various species of wild animals. 

·  They need to be understood by any veterinarian who carries out the immobilization operation.

·  Different sites in variuos wild animal species like elephants, cervids, felids etc. need to be known before applying various gadgets for chemical restraint of wild animals

 

STICK SYRINGES

·  Various stick syringes are available commercially. Silently, approach the animal cage where the non-human primate or the carnivore has been contained.

·  The quickly carry out the injection after the exposure of the correct site like a suitable muscular area in the abdomen.

·  The thrust needs to be made in proper manner and in a fast manner. Such actions may help for a successful delivery of the immobilizing agent or any other medicament.

DART SYRINGE OR DART

·  These are the specialized syringes used for loading of the immobilizing drug like xylazine or ketamine or both or etorphine.

·  Darts are operated by mechanical pressure or by using the gas and proper loading of dart into the blow pipe is a must for a successful immobilization event.

·  These projectile syringes are generally propelled by blowing of air, pistol, long distance rifle. Cartridges may be used for the pressure if the distant delivery systems like rifles are used in case of wild animals.

·  Radio darts are available currently to locate the wild animal precisely in the forest environment and a small powerful impact resistant transmitter is attached behind the drug barrel with a projectile antenna.

• Dart needles (collared or barbed or ordinary dart needles) are of more useful in delivery of drug materials

Collared needle	Barbed needle
BLOW PIPE

·  The rigid blow pipe has a tube and a mouth cuff. The mouth cuff needs to be compact and in size to facilitate the adequate blowing of air.

·  The blowgun is becoming more popular among zoo veterinarians and the major merit is the silent projection. At the same time, this may cause lesser impact or trauma or injury to the targeted wild animal.

·  The average length of blow pipe is about 1 to 2 meters and the maximum range actually depends on the stamina of the user. In general, the average range is about fifteen meters.

·  Wondering on how to practice darting? Yeah. Think about design of animal model like tiger model !!!!

BLOW PIPE APPLICATION

• Bonnet macaque being darted using blow pipe

AIR PRESSURE GUN

·  These equipments mainly are similar to the blow pipe in structure but is bigger in size and has an added advantage of silent projections and low maintenance cost.

·  The gun stock may have inbuilt pressure gauge. Some times, the pressure gauge may be present at the foot pump.

·  It is to be remembered that the pressure requirement may have variations and this often depends on the size of the dart as well as the distance between the wild animal and the gun.

·  Air pressure of about four to eight bars is adequate to propel the dart upto a distance of about twenty to thirty meters.

CROSS BOW

·  The cross bow is not much used now a day. Further, it is to be taken note of that the cross bow is not suitable for species under hundred Kg.

·  This may be due to the high impact capacity that may be developed by the projected one.

TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT

o Palmer Cap-Chur equipments or Dist-inject equipments and Teleinject equipments are commonly used to effect the immobilization of multiple species of wild animals, in general.

o The types of Palmer Cap-Chur equipment

o Pistol or short-range projector (Range is about fifteen meters)

o In this projector or the gun, the compressed carbon-di-oxide is  used for the development of the pressure.

o Rifle or long-range projector (Range is about 35 meters)

o This is also using the power provided by compressed carbon-di-oxide

o Exra-long range projector (Range is about 80 meters)

o These equipments are powered by percussion caps.

·  A veterinarian associating with wild animal immobilization is supposed to understand well about the various effects of the multiple kinds of chemical agents that are routinely used for knocking down of wild animals of various species.

CHARACTERS OF DRUGS FOR RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS

·  The drug characteristics that are expected with use of any type of chemical agent needs to be well understood before one resorts into chemical immobilization in any wild animal species.

·  Ideal features if an immobilizing drug are given below:

o Low cost

o No side effects

o Rapid absorption and rapid action

o Need of concentrated form (small quantity for injection via dart syringe is convenient for field usage)

o Permitted for use in animals for human consumption

o Effective immobilization - effects

o Reversible by the injection of an antidote

o Safe for the handler as well as to the targeted wild animal species

o Wide safety margin

o Should not irritate the muscle

o Capable of remaining stable in solution for long periods of time at room temperature

o Short induction period

·  This helps many times to avoid the untoward incidences that are likely to arise due to the chemical immobilization in case of wild fauna.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS

· 

Class		Group	Agents
Opioids		Morphine derivatives	Etorphine
		Opiate substitutes	Carfentanil Fentanyl
Neuromuscular blockers		Competitive antagonists	Gallamine
		Non-competitive antagonists	Suxamethonium
		Ganglion blockers	Hexamethonium
Tranquilizers (Neuroleptics)		Phenothiazine derivatives	Acepromazine Chlorpromazine Propionylpromazine
Hypnotics and sedatives		Diazepinones	Diazepam Midazolam Climazolam Zolazepam
		Butyrophenones	Azaperone Haloperidol
Anaesthetic drugs		Barbiturates	Thiopentone Pentobarbitone
		Inhalation anaesthetics	Halothane
		Dissociative anaesthetics	Ketamine Tiletamine
XYLAZINE

This is one of the alpha two adrenoceptor agonist and is available both in powder and solution forms.

Effects of xylazine based immobilization

·  Animals appear sleeping

·  Snoring sounds will be heard at a distance in species like elephants

·  Dullness

·  Reduced movements

Analgesia lasts for fifteen to thirty minutes and after this period, painful techniques should not be undertaken, in general. However, it is to be noted that a sleep like state is maintained for almost about an hour to two hours.

Caution

·  It is significant to note that the seemingly sedated animal may get up explosively causing concern to the safety of the persons nearby.

·  If the dose rate is exceeded, death may occur and hence, correct judgment of the dose rate depending on the species needs to be made if one wants to have a success in it’s usage in various species of wild animals. Atropine may be of useful to reduce the drug effects of xylazine.

Antidote for xylazine

·  Yohimbine at the dose rate of 0.125 mg per Kg body weight and Doxapram hydrochloride may be used as a respiratory stimulant.

KETAMINE

·  Ketamine is the derivative of phencyclidine derivative and is a dissociative anaesthetic. Animal administered with ketamine generally retains the reflexes which is considered as advantageous one with regard to the minimizing of hazards of inhalation of food or ingesta. Eyelids remain open and eyes have a fixed expression. However, it may not produce skeletal muscle relaxation.

·  Ketamine crosses the placenta in case of pregnant wild animals and however, it is known to cause no abortion in case of wild animals.

Use in wild animals

·  Wide dose rate is noticed (2 to 50 mg per kg body weight). Effects of parenteral injection occur within three to five minutes. Convulsions may occur in case of felids. This drug is not much suitable one in case of herbivores in general. However this is much useful in case of carnivores, reptiles and avifauna.

·  Cautions during the usage of ketamine

o This drug should not be mixed with barbiturates in the same range.

o Hyperthermia is a side effect of this drug.

TILETAMINE

·  Tiletamine  is one of the cyclohexanone dissociative agent related to ketamine.

·  This is often combined with zolazepam hydrochloride which is a nonphenothiazine pyrazolodiazepinone tranquilizer.

·  This combination helps to reduce the occurrence of seizures which are likely to occur more if tiletamine alone is used in the wild animals.

ETORPHINE

·  Etorphine  is a narcotic drug to be used with more clinical cautions. This is the synthetic derivative of opium alkaloid and has about ten thousand times the analgesic properties of morphine sulphate.

·  This drug has 10,000 times the analgesic properties of morphine. Anaesthesia occurs in ten to twenty minutes.

·  Recovery is slow without antidote and in such occasions, the recovery may take as much as seven hours. However, when antidote is used, the wild animal may become mobile or ambulatory within a period of about four to ten minutes.

·  Legal formalities are to be taken care of while using etorphine like drugs.

·  The animal may have tachycardia and may either get stimulated or depressed depending on the dose-response and the species of the wild animal.

Use of etorphine in wild animal

·  This drug is used in large sized herbivores like elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, sambar deer etc. Large animal formulation of Immobilon contains 2.45 mg/ml Etorphine mixed with 10mg/ml Acepromazine maleate which is a phenothiazine derivative.

Antidote

·  Diprenorphine is the antidote to be used for etorphine. The standard dose is double the amount of etorphine injected.

·  Cautions to be undertaken while using etorphine

o Should not be used with atropine, since the atropine may reduce the solubility of the drug.

o Animal may develop hyperthermia

o Passive regurgitation may occur in cases of prolonged immobilization with etorphine

o Injured wild animals may require slightly high dose rate of etorphine

o Human-health hazard related factors need to be taken care of like avoidance of accidental falling on skin or eyes of the handling wildlife veterinarian and person who knows how to give I/V in human being may accompany the operation and such action may be of useful in cases of accidental emergencies. Equipment for artificial respiration should be available in the spot. Always wear gloves and glasses during usage of etorphine. When morphine drugs are handled, a stock of Narcan (human antidote) and diprenorphine (animal antidote) must always be available.

ACEPROMAZINE

·  Acepromazine is generally not used alone and often, a combination is used with ketamine or etorphine.

·  The muscle relaxant effects are unique ones when used in combination with ketamine.

FENTANYL AND CARFENTANYL

·  Fentanyl is a morphine derivative and is about one hundred and eighty times more potent than the morphine as an analgesic. This drug is often combined with droperidol which is a tranquilizer.

·  Though the effects start in about ten minutes, the effects may persist for about forty minutes.

Use in wild animals 

·  The combination of droperidol with Fentanyl may be used in various species of wild animals especially carnivores, nonhuman primates and various small mammals among the wild animal species.

Antidote

·  Naloxone hydrochloride is an antidote to be used at the dose rate of 0.006 mg per Kg body weight.

• Carfentanyl may be used in wild animals but is one of the costly drugs and is a narcotic one.

ANAESTHETICS

Characteristics of Anaesthetics

·  Should be cheap

·  Should be easily available

·  Needs to be fast in induction of Anaesthesia.

·  There should be minimal side effects

·  Complications should not be there in general

·  Should have more merits technically

ANAESTHETICS COMMONLY USED

Gaseous anesthetics

• Halothane
• It is a halogenated hydrocarbon
• It’s usage is on decrease due to increased popularity of isoflurane and sevoflurane.
• Side effects
• Development of arrhythmia.
• Demerits
• Limited availability.

Nitrous oxide

• This is not used as a solo anaesthetic due to its low potency. It is commonly used as 50% mixture with balance of the mix being oxygen.

·  Contraindications

o This is contraindicated in animals with pneumothorax, gastric dilatation, gas embolism, etc.

Isoflurane

·  This is the most widely used veterinary inhalant anaesthetic.

·  This is stable and potent.

·  This has a high saturated vapour pressure.

• Merits
• Metabolism of isoflurane is minimal and fluoride induced nephrotoxicity is uncommon.

Desflurane

• Limited use in veterinary medicine.
• Injectable anaesthetics
• Barbiturates
• This causes anasethesia through depression of CNS activity. Eg. Thiopental, pentobarbital etc.
• Demerits
• Perivascular injection can lead to tissue necrosis.
• Their use in non domestic species due to practical “inability” to obtain reliable intravenous access prior to anaesthetic induction.

ATTENDING WOUNDS

Wound Treatment

·  This is more common among wild mammals, in particular. Followings are basically required in wound therapy.

o Provision of suitable drainage if abscess is encountered.

o Irrigation of wound cavity with suitable antibiotic solution.

o Debridging of wound.

o Suturing of wound due to injury if it is a fresh one.

o Usage of BIPP, triple sulphide ointment etc. in case of long standing abscesses.

Note

·  Foreign bodies have to be given emphasis in case of long standing abscess or wounds especially in animals like elephants.

PROLAPSE OF GENITAL TRACT

·  The prolapsed mass is to be reduced by using sterile saline and antiseptic solution and suture may be placed accordingly. Prolapse of cloaca and related organs is commonly seen in crocodiles, snakes etc.

CAESARIAN

·  In prolonged parturition or dystokia, caesarian may be required in any wild animal species but care is to be taken to full extent during administration of any anaesthetic or any immobilizing agent in such clinical cases.

FRACTURES

·  Appropriate surgical intervention are required in case of fracture related incidences.

·  However, limitations are three due to excitability of wild animal species in general when compared to domestic animals.

DEFORMED HOOVES

·  These are common among antelopes, bovids and deers. To facilitate gait, surgical methods of trimming of the excessively grown hoof structures are highly required.

·  However, by using immobilizing agents, wild animals need to be sedated first prior to surgical intervention.

ABSCESS

·  This may occur in any region including velvet region of species like deer.

·  This may be commonly seen among deers with velvet. Drainage with irrigation of abscess cavities with antiseptic solutions is a must along with protection of treated regions from any other contamination.

·  Cutaneous abscesses / lumps are commonly noticed especially in pythons. Depending on the symptoms, surgical intervention may be undertaken.

MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS

·  Tumorous growths in body regions

·  Amputation of horns

·  Trimming of tusk

·  Rasping of tooth

·  Birth related operations like vasectomy or removal of ovaries or uterus or any part of genital organs

·  Amputation of any gangrenous extremities

·  Removal of eyeball due to irreparable injuries or tissues that are highly damaged.

 

 

Question bank for VMD512: Zoo/Wild Animal Breeding, Management, Nutrition

and Health Care (1+1)

Write short answers

1. What are the factors causing impact on protected regions ?

2. List out the threats to the eco system

3. What are the features of Class Mammalia ?

4. List out the species of non-human primates

5. Write on Chiroptera

6. What are the common characters of carnivores ?

7. Write on Classification of felids ?

8. What are the common features of Reptiles ?

9. What are the Mustelids ?

10. What are the Biogeographic zones of India ?

11. Write on “Cover” for wild animals

12. What are the objectives of a Zoo ?

13. Classification of Zoos in India

14. Write on Stud book in a Zoo

15. Endangered wild animals of India

16. What are the requisites for a planned breeding in zoos ?

17. Write on distances related to ethological aspects

18. Barriers in Zoo

19. Write on Carcase and Waste disposal in a zoological park set up

20. What are the commonly occurring surgical conditions in case of wild animals

21. Write on blow pipe and it’s application

22. Write on Capture Myopathy

23. Write on stress and stressors in case of wild animals

24. Classify the wild animals based on feeding habits

25. Write on the commonly given feeds in case of non-human primates

26. Write on leptospirosis in wild animals

27. Write on trypanosomosis in wild animals

28. Write on pasteurellosis in wild animals

29. Metabolic bone disease in wild fauna

30. Write on gout in wild fauna

Write an essay

1. Write in detail on “Wildlife Management”

2. Classify the taxonomical orders in wild animals and give examples under each

order

3. Taxonomical classification of elephants and the differences between African

elephants and Asiatic elephants

4. Write with multiple examples about order Non-human primates, Rodentia and

describe the special features of Edentia with examples of species-names

5. Write in detail on taxonomical classification of Artiodactylids and

Perissodactylids with examples

6. Write on “Carnivores” with multiple examples

7. Discuss on habitats of wild animals based on ecological sub-units and write on

linkage of specific habitat with specific wild animals

8. Describe the zoo set up and mention the role played by different cadres employed

in the zoological set up

9. Write on quarantine, isolation unit and environmental enrichment for wild animal

species.

10. Describe on Captive breeding and Assisted Reproduction

11. Define ethology and describe on different types of behavior observed in wild

animals

12. What are the components of housing arrangements to be made for wild animals ?

13. Describe the preventive measures to be adapted against important diseases in wild

animals

14. Define restraint and describe the gadgets used for physical restraint of wild

animals commonly confined in Zoological gardens

15. Write in detail on Chemical restraint of wild animals

16. Write on stress to wild animals and the reactions of wild animals to the stress

conditions occurring from multiple conditions especially those related to the

muscular regions

17. Define stress and write on handling and physical examination of wild animals

18. Write on significance of feeding and discuss on general components of nutrients

required for up keeping the health status of wild animals

19. What are the commonly given feeds to different species of wild animals ?

20. Write on commonly occurring bacterial diseases in case of wild animals

21. Discuss in detail on common viral diseases affecting wild fauna

22. Write on metabolic diseases affecting wild animals

23. Write on Zoonotic diseases affecting wild animal confined in a Zoo and write on

viral diseases affecting elephants

24. Describe the roles played by zoo veterinarians

25. Write on Gout, Metabolic bone diseases and hypothyroidism in wild animals

26. Discuss in detail on feeding of wild animals and the feeding strategies to be

maintained in wild animals

27. Write on Reptile classification with examples and mention the sanitation

measures to be maintained in a zoological park set up

28. Write on classification of various drugs and their usage in case of wild animals

29. Write on Population and Breeding of wild animals

30. Discuss in detail on Wildlife Protection Act and Zoo

****************