VMD 513 Notes

VACCINATIION AND COMMON SURGICAL INTERVENTIONS IN DOGS

Vaccination

·  There are several diseases that can be fatal to the dogs but, fortunately, some of them can be avoided with timely vaccination. However, vaccines only work if the adequate timing is respected. Ideally the first round of vaccinations must be done at the age of 6-8, 12 and 16 weeks of age; this schedule may vary depending on several factors.

·  The schedule of routine vaccination protects the dogs from seven diseases:

o Distemper - an airborne viral disease of the brain, lungs and intestines. It´s considered the most serious viral dog disease in the world that kills around 90% of the non-immunized, infected dogs.

o Parvovirus - a viral disease of the intestines; adult dogs generally recover from a viral diarrhea; in puppies it can be fatal.

o Leptospirosis - a bacterial disease of the urinary system.

o Infectious Hepatitis - a viral disease of the liver not as common as it once was, but still a dangerous disease; adult dogs generally survive but to puppies are often fatal.

o Parainfluenza - infectious bronchitis. It is a highly contagious though self-limiting respiratory disease.

o Coronavirus - a viral disease of the intestines.

o Rabies - a viral disease that attacks nerve tissue; it is contagious and fatal to humans and other animals.

·  The first six diseases are included in a combined vaccine (6-way vaccine), that is administered at 6-8, 12 and 16 weeks of age. The rabies vaccine is administered between 3 and the 6 months of age. The vaccine boosters are administered once a year; the rabies inoculation can be made at the same time or included in the same vaccine. These are the core vaccines. If your dog attends training classes or is occasionally sent to a kennel or other dog boarding facility, it would be advisable to administer the vaccine for the Bordetellosis (cough of the kennel), a noncore vaccine but that, in this case, is more than appropriate.

NEED OF MORE THAN ONE VACCINATION

·  When the puppies feed from their mothers’ milk, they obtain temporary immunity under the form of proteins called antibodies. During the first 24 to 48 hours after the birth the puppy’s intestine absorbs these antibodies which enter directly his bloodstream. This form of immunity protects the puppy during his first weeks of life, but at a certain time this temporary immunization gradually fades and the dog has to be able to produce its own long term immunity.

·  The mother’s antibodies are neutralizers and, as such, while they are present in the puppies system the vaccines won’t have the capacity to stimulate the dog’s immunology system.

·  As we can't determine the exact moment that the dog loses the maternal immunity (the exact time of maternal immunity's fading is very variable) we follow a schedule of several injections to increase the probability that an inoculation is administered at the precise moment that it is effective. If only one inoculation is made (even if the vaccination is effective and is not neutralized by the maternal antibodies) the probability that it stimulates long term immunity is narrow.

·  The rabies vaccine is an exception, because a single inoculation, when administered at the right time, is enough to produce long term immunity.

DOCKING

·  Docking, cropping and other cosmetic surgeries not allowed other than medical ground.

·  Docking is the removal of portions of an animal's tail or ears. While docking and bobbing are more commonly used to refer to removal of the tail, the term cropping is used in reference to the ears.

·  Tail docking occurs in one of two ways. The first involves constricting the blood supply to the tail with a rubber ligature for a few days until the tail falls off.

·  The second involves the severance of the tail with surgical scissors or a scalpel. The tail is amputated at the dock.

·  At least 17 dog breeds, including the Corgi, have naturally occurring bob tail lines. These appear similar to docked dogs but are a distinct naturally occurring genotype.

·  The issue of docking is not relevant to these natural bob tails (also known as NBTs).

DOCKING STANDARDS

• Such surgeries are banned in India for cosmetic purpose
• Amputation of tail as per the breed requirement for registration in the kennel or due to clinical reason or to enhance the appearance is known as docking of the tail.
• The operation is very simple and normally performed at a very young age with the help of a docking scissor under local anesthesia.
• Antiseptic dressing is required for 5-7 days for complete healing of the uncomplicated operations performed before one week of age.

Docking standards

Breed		Length to leave
Boxer		First two coccygeal vertebrae
Dobermann		First two coccygeal vertebrae
Cocker spaniel		Leave 1/3 of the tail
Irish Terrier		Leave 3/4 of the tail
Australian Terrier		Leave 1/3 of the tail
EAR CROPPING

·  Ear cropping has been banned in India for cosmetic purpose

·  Long and drooping ears are often found inconvenient for the pet and require surgical trimming.

·  Surgical management is also required during mechanical tear and diseased condition like haematoma on the inner or outer aspect of the ear.

·  Cropping of the ears is done to keep the ears erect.

·  Boxer, Dobermann, Great Dane etc. are some of the breeds, where cropping of the ear is practiced.

·  In Boxer and Dobermann cropping is recommended at 14 weeks and in Great Dane at 18 weeks of age.

·  or one or two hours, later increase the time interval.

·  Ear cropping is a surgical procedure that involves precise cutting and shaping of the ear pinna (the floppy part of the ears) in order to make the ears stand erect. After surgery, the ears are bandaged and propped up so they heal in an erect position.

·  Bandage changes are done weekly, and ears remain taped and propped up until they stand on their own. The healing process can take 4-8 weeks.

·  Ear cropping is most often performed on specific breeds of puppies between the age of eight to twelve weeks. This is an elective cosmetic surgical procedure done in order to achieve a specific "look" that coincides with breed standard. In rare cases, ear cropping or similar types of surgeries are deemed medically necessary due to health conditions. Otherwise, the decision to crop ears is one made by the dog owner and/or breeder.

·  Other common elective cosmetic procedures include tail docking and dewclaw removal. Among the most common breeds considered for ear cropping are Doberman Pinschers, Great Danes and Schnauzers.

·  Ear cropping is a very controversial subject thought by some to be cruel and excessive. Others consider the procedure quite routine and harmless.

NAIL CUTTING

·  The dog's nails will need to be trimmed occasionally.

·  How often depends on the surface the dog is kept on.

·  Outside dogs usually wear their nails down naturally on the soil surface; inside dogs need to be checked more often.

·  Nails can be clipped at home using clippers obtained from a veterinarian or pet shop.

·  Clippers should be sharp so that they cut the nail and not crush it; crushing the nail may cause pain to the nail bed.

·  One must be extremely careful not to cut into the nail bed because this will cause bleeding.

·  With clear or white nails, you can easily see the nail bed.

·  Extreme caution needs to be taken when clipping dogs with black nails.

·  Bleeding can be stopped using a styptic pencil.

·  One should check the dew claws on the inside of the leg; these will not wear down and many times are overlooked.

·  Sharp, pointed scissors should never be used to trim nails because they may injure the dog if it should happen to move suddenly.

THE BEST WAY OF CLIPPING DOG NAILS

• The best way how to cut a dog's nails is to have the dog lying on a raised table or other surface. Do remember to put a non-slip mat for your dog to sit or stand on so she doesn't slip and hurt herself.
• Having someone strong hold your dog in their arms while you quickly clip a couple of nails is another effective way of doing this.
• However, your dog may be as good as gold and let you cut their claws with no fuss at all - in which case you are a very fortunate person!
• Carefully read the instructions for the nail clipping tool of your choice. For example, with the guillotine, you need to cut from the underneath of your dog's claw up wards. Never clip down wards.
• Position the tool in the right place, wait for an opportune moment when your dog stops wriggling, double check that the clipper is in the right place and squeeze firmly and smoothly - the nail will just pop off.
• When wondering when and how to cut dog's nails, little and often is the best policy. Just nibbling off the ends of each claw will be less stressful for your dog - and yourself! The point to aim for is to trim off any bit that protrudes over your dog's pad. Thus, when he stands, your dog's claws should not touch the ground.
• The good thing is, very much like our own nails, the more you trim your dog's nails, the more the quick will recede.
• Therefore, clipping dog nails doesn't have to be done all at once - take your time.

STERILIZATION

·  Dogs are prolific by nature.

·  A healthy female dog can give birth many times during its life, bringing into the world half a dozen puppies each time.

·  However, the possibilities to find a good home are a lot more limited, so it is necessary to reduce the number of potential breeder dogs through the sterilization.

·   If it is practiced on the male or the female dog, you will not only prevent undesired pregnancies, but also some conduct problems and organic diseases

FEMALE DOG CASTRATION

·  The uterus and the ovaries are usually extirpated at once either when the dog is five months old or when three months after its last heat. If a female dog has given birth, you can castrate it when it has stopped producing milk.

·  Despite the big cut on the abdomen, this is a very safe surgery and the dogs usually recover very quickly

The ova hysterectomy is convenient for the females that won't breed for many reasons:

·  With age, female dogs are more likely to have uterine infections, especially if they have never bred and then the hysterectomy is inevitable. But extirpating an infected uterus is a lot more dangerous, even worst when the dog is very old.

·  Castration avoids the psychological pregnancies and their complications, a very common problem in many female dogs.

·  It also avoids the harassment of the male dogs, that literally pursuit the female's house while they're in heat and also avoids the risk of the family growing if we are not careful enough.

·  Castration is the safest way to control heat. Most of the medications used for this purpose increase the risk of contracting uterine infections in the future.

·  Accidental mating can have serious consequences if the female dog is too old.

·  If the dog gets castrated when it is still young, the risk of getting breast cancer reduces notably.

Even when the castration has only few side effects, they exist:

·  Sometimes you may notice changes of conduct in the castrated female dog, but they are usually for better. Dog grooming harness

·  The age can produce progressive incontinence of the castrated dogs caused by the weakness of the urinary bladder sphincter, but this problem is not very frequent and gets a lot better with medication.

·  The female dog can suffer an increment of its appetite after the castration and easily gain weight, but if you regularly check on its weight and you make the necessary adjustments to its diet, there would be no weight problems.

MALE DOG CASTRATION

·  The extirpation of the testicles helps to solve many conduct problems in male dogs. Sometimes, it is convenient to supply certain medications with similar effect to castration (chemical castration), even when it will be only temporarily, before the surgery, to make sure that the castration will have the expected effects on the conduct, but that should be decided by the veterinary.

·  The advantages of the castration on a male dog are the following:

o The non castrated male dog usually runs away from the house to follow the smell of female dogs in the heat.

o It is more probable that they will develop aggressive conducts and try to turn themselves into the dominant individual of the family pack when they are not castrated.

o The male dogs that only attack other males usually decrease their aggressive conduct after the castration.

o Many male dogs use to cover people's legs, puppets, cushions or pillows. This conduct usually disappears or at least decreases, after the surgery.

o The custom of raising the paw to urinate in order to mark the territory, totally natural in the non castrated dogs, is reduced with castration.

o A castrated male dog is safe from prostrate problems, from testicle tumors and from those tumors that can only develop in the presence of masculine hormones.

·  The castration produces similar side effects on the male and the female dogs (more tendencies to gain weight, for example) in any case, not very serious as a general rule.

·  Even when there are veterinarians that only castrate a male dog when it has already begun to present conduct problems; there are others that prefer castrating them when they are still puppies as a preventive measure.

COMMON ANESTHETICS AND ANESTHESIA IN DOGS

·  Anesthetics are drugs used to block the sensation of pain. They are divided into two categories: local and general.

·  Local anesthetics are used to numb the surface of the body. They are injected into tissue and around regional nerves. They may also be applied topically to mucous membranes. Local anesthetics, such as xylocaine, have fewer risks and side effects than general anesthetics, but they are not suitable for major surgery.

·  General anesthetics render the dog unconscious. They can be given by injection or inhalation. Light anesthesia sedates or relaxes the dog and may be suitable for short procedures, such as removing porcupine quills. For prolonged surgeries or extremely painful procedures such as surgery on the eye or orthopedic procedures, the dog may need to be kept at a deeper level of anesthesia. This is normally done using inhaled anesthetics. Inhaled gases, such as isoflurane, are administered through a tube placed in the dog's trachea. By adjusting the flow of the gas, the dog can be kept at a lighter or deeper level of anesthesia.

·  The guideline dose of an injectable anesthetic is computed according to the weight of the dog. For gas anesthesia, the mixture of oxygen and anesthetic is balanced and the dose adjusted according to the breathing of the dog. Many factors require that the exact dosage be customized to the individual dog.

·  Certain breeds have an increased sensitivity to barbiturates and other anesthetics, and that must also be taken into account. Toy breeds and breeds with a low percentage of body fat, particularly Greyhounds and Border Collies, require less anesthetic per pound of body weight. This is one reason why anesthetics should be given by someone who is trained to determine the degree of sedation each drug produces.

·  Combinations of anesthetics are often given to lessen the potential toxicity of each.

·  Anesthetics are removed from the bloodstream by the lungs, liver, and kidneys. Impaired function of these organs can cause dose-related complications. If your dog has a history of lung, liver, kidney, or heart disease, the risk from anesthesia and surgery is increased. Presurgery bloodwork will help your veterinarian to determine the safest drug and dose for your dog.

·  A major risk of general anesthesia is the dog vomiting when going to sleep or waking up. The vomitus refluxes into the trachea and produces asphyxiation. This can be avoided by keeping the stomach empty for 12 hours before scheduled surgery. If you know your dog is going to have an operation the next day, do not give him anything to eat or drink after 6 p.m. the night before. This means picking up the water dish and keeping the dog away from the toilet bowl and other sources of water. The endotracheal tube used to administer anesthesia has a small inflatable balloon that helps block off the trachea and inhaling vomitus.

LOCAL ANESTHETICS

·  Local anesthesia provides pain control for a specific location on the body. Examples include an epidural before surgery on a rear limb, or a nerve block before a tooth extraction.

·  The local anesthetic prevents the pain impulse from being 'read' by the brain. With animals, local anesthetics may provide pain control, but may not be sufficient to keep the animal still during the procedure.

·  In these cases, a sedative or general anesthetic is typically needed in conjunction with a local anesthetic. For certain procedures, local anesthetics may be used in an effort to decrease the amount of general anesthetic needed and speed up recovery time.

·  Lidocaine is an example of a local anesthetic. It lasts about 1-2 hours.

·  Lidocaine should be used with caution in animals with certain heart conditions or liver disease.

·  It is used with caution in cats, since cats tend to be more sensitive to it than dogs.

·  Bupivacaine is similar to lidocaine and lasts for 2-6 hours. Morphine may be combined with a local anesthetic for epidurals.

SEDATIVES AND TRANQUILIZERS

·  Sedatives and tranquilizers are used to relax an animal for procedures such as trimming nails, taking x-rays, or drawing blood. These medications are injected either into a muscle or directly into a vein.

·  Sedatives and tranquilizers are commonly used in combinations as preanesthetics before general anesthesia to relax and sedate the animal.

·  Diazepam (Valium) and midazolam are tranquilizers that are used to relax animals before surgery. They should not be used in pregnant animals, since they could cause birth defects. Acepromazine is another tranquilizer used as a preanesthetic.

·  It should not be used in animals that have seizures, since it may increase the risk of the animal having a seizure.

·  It may also cause hypotension (low blood pressure). Tranquilizers do not provide analgesia (pain relief).

·  With any of these medications, the animal may be groggy for the remainder of the day, but should be able to stand and walk before he is allowed to go home.

SEDATIVE - ANALGESICS

·  Some sedatives also provide analgesia (pain relief). Among these are several short-acting drugs, which have reversal agents that quickly bring an animal back to an alert state. An example is Domitor (medetomidine hydrochloride), which is used as a sedative and analgesic in dogs.

·  It is used for minor procedures that do not require muscle relaxation such as the removal of porcupine quills. The medication is given IV (intravenous) or IM (intramuscular), and the animal is allowed to quietly rest for 5-10 minutes while the drug takes effect.

·  Twitching is a common side effect. Once the procedure is done, the animal is given atipamezole hydrochloride (Antisedan) to reverse Domitor's effects. It is given IM and the animal is awake in 5-10 minutes.

·  The pet may have an abrupt reversal of the sedation and become startled.

·  A quiet, darkened area would be the ideal setting for allowing the animal to rest during the reversal process.

GENERAL ANESTHETICS

·  General anesthetics are used when an animal needs to be unconscious and unaware of what is being done for an extended period of time, such as for surgery. General anesthetics block the pain sensation, prevent movement during surgery, and usually cause muscle relaxation.

·  Thiopental is an ultrashort-acting barbiturate, which is used for induction of general anesthesia or for very short procedures, such as suturing a small wound or removing porcupine quills. It is injected directly into the vein and unconsciousness occurs within a minute. Greyhounds and other sight hounds may have a longer recovery period than other breeds. This may be due to their low body fat levels or differences in how the body breaks down the anesthetic.

·  Ketamine and Telazol are other injectable anesthetics used for restraint or short procedures, such as draining an abscess. Telazol is used in cats and dogs. Ketamine is used in cats; it provides no muscle relaxation. Ketamine and Telazol function differently than most other injectable anesthetics. They produce 'dissociative' anesthesia, which means the animal is not aware of what is going on. The animal's eyes remain open and reflexes are generally present.

·  When using a general gas anesthetic, the animal is given an induction agent such as thiopental to bring him to unconsciousness. Then the gas anesthetic is mixed with oxygen in the anesthesia machine and is administered via a face mask or an endotracheal tube placed in the pet's trachea (windpipe). Commonly used general gas anesthetics include, isoflurane and halothane. They are both rapidly taken up and eliminated from the body by the lungs. Isoflurane has become the anesthetic of choice in veterinary medicine, and its use is especially indicated for pregnant animals (including c-sections) and for animals with heart problems.

COMMON MEDICAL CONDITIONS REQUIRING SURGERY IN CATS

• Tooth extraction
• Skin abscesses, inflammation or pressure ulcer
• Benign skin mass
• Bladder stones
• Cancer of the abdominal wall
• Malignant skin mass
• Multiple bite wounds
• Cancer of the liver
• Cancer of the mouth
• Cancer of the nasal cavity

TOOTH EXTRACTION

Simple Extraction

·  A simple extraction refers to the extraction of a small single-rooted tooth, such as an incisor. An appropriate-sized dental elevator is placed in the gingival sulcus to sever the attachments of the gingiva around the tooth. The elevator should be advanced apically between the alveolar bone and the root. The periodontal ligament can be torn by rotating and holding the elevator 90 degrees for 15-second intervals. A dental extraction forceps can then be placed on the crown to rotate the tooth and remove it from the alveolus.

Multi-Rooted Extraction

·  Multi-rooted teeth include the premolars and molars which may be difficult to extract when only one root is affected with the other roots firmly attached to the alveolar bone. Most roots are embedded in the alveolar bone at divergent angles which further anchors the tooth into the surrounding bone. Sectioning of a multi rooted tooth into two or three segments converts the procedure into multiple simple extractions. A tapered fissure bur on a high-speed hand piece is an efficient technique for sectioning teeth. The furcation is located prior to sectioning the tooth. This can be done by elevating the gingiva with a periosteal elevator. The bur is placed at the furcation and directed through the crown. The segments of the tooth are then independently extracted.

Complicated or Surgical Extraction

·  A complicated or surgical extraction technique is generally reserved for dog’s teeth that are difficult to extract because of their large root structure including the canine teeth, mandibular 1^st molars and the maxillary 4^th premolars.

·  Numerous steps are involved in the performance of a surgical extraction. The initial step is creation of a mucoperiosteal flap. Careful and adequate elevation of the mucoperiosteal flap is important for gaining access to the underlying buccal alveolar bone so that during the procedure the gingiva is not perforated. The next step involves location of the furcation and sectioning of a multi-rooted tooth. The buccal alveolar bone is then removed as needed to provide an efficient controlled technique for delivering large rooted teeth. Excessive removal of buccal bone should be avoided particularly when extracting mandibular teeth because this causes unnecessary weakening of the mandible. Elevation and extraction of each segment is accomplished by gently placing the dental elevator into the periodontal space advancing the elevator apically and gently rotating and holding the elevator for 10-15 seconds around the entire gingival sulcus until the segment can be easily extracted with an extraction forceps. An alveoloplasty is performed prior to closure to give the extraction site a smooth boney contour decreasing postoperative pain that may be associated with sharp edges of bone beneath the mucoperiosteal flap. A small dental curette is placed in the alveolus to remove any necrotic debrie, calculus or bone fragments and the alveolus and flap are flushed prior to closure. The mucoperiosteal flap is repositioned and sutured in place. If there is tension on the mucoperiosteal flap when attempting to close a surgical extraction site the tension can be released by incising the inner most layer of the flap, the inelastic periosteum, at the apical portion of the flap. Incision of the periosteum will permit tensionless apposition of the flap and prevent postoperative dehiscence.

·  When performing a mucoperiosteal flap for the surgical extraction of the maxillary 4^th premolar several structures should be carefully avoided. When making the mesial (rostral) portion of the incision the infraorbital artery, vein and nerve should be avoided as they exit the infraorbital canal immediately rostral to the periapical bone of the mesiobuccal root of the maxillary 4^th premolar. These structures can be avoided by digitally retracting them dorsally and not extending this incision too far apically. When making the distal (caudal) part of the incision the parotid and zygomatic salivary duct papillae should be visualized and avoided.

·  There are two approaches for the surgical extraction of the mandibular canine teeth including the labial and lingual approach.² The labial approach utilizes a mucoperiosteal flap located on the labial aspect of the tooth while a lingual approach utilizes a lingually located flap. Equal amounts of alveolar bone are present buccally and labially so there is no advantage of one technique over the other with regard to bone removal. The mental artery, vein and nerve exit through the mental foramen located near the labial aspect of the apex of this tooth. A lingual approach would avoid potential damage to these structures.

ABSCESS IN CATS

·  Treatment for an abscess depends of whether the abscess has ruptured. For abscesses that have not ruptured, an area of the skin over the lump is cleaned and the abscess is lanced.

·  Pus will drain from the lump. This procedure may require heavy sedation or general anesthesia for your cat.

·  At this point, treatment for ruptured and non-ruptured abscesses is the same.

·  After a majority of the pus has been removed from the abscess, a disinfectant solution such as povidone iodine or chlorhexidine is used to further flush the abscess and remove additional pus.

·  After a thorough cleaning, antibiotics are generally prescribed to hasten healing and eliminate infection

DIAGNOSIS

·  Diagnostic tests may include:

·  Take a complete history. Expect to answer the following questions:

·  How long the growth has been there?

·  Has it gotten larger or smaller or changes in appearance?

·  Does the lump appear to be attached to the underlying skin?

·  How fast is it is growing?

·  Have there been any recent injuries or injections?

·  Is there only one lump or are there others?

·  Are there any changes in your pet's behavior, such as eating less, weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea or lethargy?

o A complete physical exam should be done.  Pay particular attention to the appearance of the mass, whether it is hot or painful, whether it is within the skin or under the skin, if it is attached to underlying tissues and where it is located on the body. Additional tests include:

o An aspirate of the mass with a small needle may be done to collect cells for staining and examination under a microscope (cytology). This test usually requires no anesthesia and often leads to a diagnosis.

o If the mass is ulcerated or draining fluid, a microscope slide may be touched to the fluid to make an impression for microscopic examination.

o A biopsy may be taken to send to a veterinary pathologist for examination. The biopsy may involve removing the entire mass or removing a piece of the mass.

o A piece of tissue may be submitted for culture if infectious agents such as bacteria or fungi are suspected.

Treatment

·  Treatment depends on the cause of the mass. There is no specific treatment for all skin growths.

UROLITHS IN CATS

·  There are two options for treatment. The fastest solution is to remove them surgically. This requires major surgery in which the abdomen and bladder are opened. Following two to four days of recovery, the cat is relieved of pain and dysuria.

·  The hematuria will often persist for a few more days, then it stops.

·  Surgery is not the best option for all patients; those with urethral obstruction and those with bacterial infections associated with the stones should be operated on unless there are other health conditions that prohibit surgery.

·  The second option is to dissolve the stone with a special diet. This avoids surgery and can be a very good choice for some cats. It has three disadvantages.

·  It is not successful for all types of stones.

·  Unless some sand-sized stones can be collected from the urine and analyzed, it is not possible to know if the stone is of the composition that is likely to be dissolved.

·  It is slow. It may take several weeks or a few months to dissolve a large stone so the cat may continue to have hematuria and dysuria during that time.

·  Not all cats will eat the special diet. The diet is not as tasty as the foods that many cats are fed. If it is not consumed exclusively, it will not work.

BITE WOUNDS IN CATS

·  Treatment of cat bite wounds varies. Treatment should be initiated at the earliest.

·  If several days have elapsed since the fight, an abscess will usually form.

·  The pus must be drained through the bite wound hole or holes, or by incising the skin over the abscess.

·  If surgery is needed the cat will be anesthetized and the site of the abscess surgically prepared by shaving and antiseptic cleaning.

·  Dead and infected tissue are removed.

·  The wound is either sutured closed or left open to drain and heal naturally (granulate in).

·  Occasionally, a latex drain tube must be placed to keep the wound open and allow pus to drain out completely.

·  Antibiotics given by injection and/or by mouth complete the treatment.

·  The abscess usually heals within 2-5 days.

·  If cellulitis occurs instead of an abscess, drainage is not possible because the infection is not confined to a local area. In this case, antibiotics are the sole treatment. Cellulitis is slower to heal than an abscess but will usually take place within 3-7 days.

CANCER IN CATS

·  Cancer in cats is less common than cancer in dogs. It’s probably half the rate that we see in dogs. But when we see cancer in cats, it tends to be a more aggressive form.

·  One of the most common cancers we see in cats is lymphoma, which is associated with the feline leukemia virus (FeLV). Even though there’s a vaccine for feline leukemia now, we still see a number of cats that have been exposed to it, and exposure greatly increases a cat’s chance of developing feline lymphoma.

·  We also see oral squamous carcinoma, similar to what people get. We see a tumor called fibrosarcoma, or soft tissue sarcoma, which is a tumor developing in muscle or in the connective tissue of the body. That’s the one associated with injections and vaccinations, which some people call injection-site sarcoma.

·  We see other kinds of tumors as well, but they are much less common -- lung tumors, brain tumors, nasal tumors, liver tumors. We don’t see as many mammary tumors these days because so many people have their cats spayed now. So all of those are just a smattering here and there.

·  Treatment

·  Surgery is the most common treatment for any kind of lump or bump that needs to be removed.

·  Chemotherapy is used most commonly in the management of lymphomas. But it’s also used aggressive tumors that have spread to lymph nodes or other organs.

·  Radiation therapy in situations where we can’t remove the tumors, for example brain tumors and nasal tumors.

GROOMING

·  A well nourished, healthy bird will have a magnificent coat of shiny, glossy feathers to show off.

·  Birds with dull, off colored, broken or tattered feathers are prime suspect for disease.

·  Preening is work a bird does on its feathers to maintain their beauty and function.

·  Birds have two to three thousand feathers, and each of these much cleaned of dust and dirt, untangled, fluffed, lubricated and properly replaced in its special position every day.

·  This work, A healthy bird will spend much of its waking hours caring for its coat.

·  Pet owner can help encourage this very important activity by

o Bathing

o Molt

o Wing trimming

o Nail trimming

o Beak trimming

BATHING

·  Bathing is an excellent way to encourage preening.

·  Every birds have its own way of bathing.

·  If the bird does not appear to like bathing, chances are the preferred method has not been discovered. Bathing suggestions,

o Bowel filled with water

o Installing mister or fogger, ideal for larger birds

o Water faucet, making sure that water does not get too hot

o Wet foliage, great for budgies and other small birds

o Sprinkler in warmer day

o Shower with buddy good for larger birds.

·  Bird should be bathed daily for a schedule of two or three in a week is ideal.

·  A soap or cleaning agent should not be used.

·  Even in small amount it may destroy the protective oil coat of the birds.

MOLT

·  Molting is the them given to the shedding or loss of old feathers simultaneous with the growth of new ones.

·  Molting is a very stressful period in a birds life, and there are several reasons for this.

·  The flying birds will be more susceptible to predators during this period.

·  This lack of security carries over to pet birds as well.

·  Growing new feathers requires considerable energy.

·  If the bird is already on a good diet, no change is necessary.

·  A marginal diet may need to be boosted.

·  Feather provide insulation from the cold. When many feathers are lost birds require additional warmth around them.

·  As new feathers grow in, increased preening is necessary to bring the feathers to their final stage of maturity.

·  The keratin sheath protecting the young feather is removed, which allow the new adult feather to emerge.

·  During molting period, the stress should be minimized, nutrition should be at higher plan, room temperature should be maintained ideally, and the bird should be encouraged for preening.

WING TRIMMING

Wing trimming

·  Wing trim is done to prevent flight, it avoid injuries associated with flying and make training easier.

·  On the other hand, flying is a important form of exercise and will help allow a bird to escape a house dog or cat bent on birdie mayhem.

·  There are several methods described for trimming wings.

·  Some birds will retain the uncanny ability to fly, regardless of trimming method used.

·  The preferred technique is the trim both wins.

·  By trimming the the flight feathers of both wings instead of just one, a bird can still have a safe, controlled glide to the floor.

·  When only on wing is trimmed, balance is poor, directional ability is lost and dangerous crash landing can occur.

·  The wing should be cut from the wing tip and inward.

·  The first five to eight primary flight feathers can be cut in both the wings.

·  The feathers can be trimmed along the line created by the bottom of the dorsal major wing covers.

·  Wing trimming must be done on regular basis.

·  Feathers grow continuously and there is no prescribed time table for trimming wing. Every bird is different.

·  It is recommended that the wing be checked at least every three to four months.

Precautions to be taken

• Care should be taken to avoid cutting of blood feathers
• Wing trimming required good handling and restraining

WHEN TO CLIP

·  Birds should be clipped when their feathers have grown back enough so that they can fly more than a few feet.

·  This is usually after a molt and for most birds about once a year.

·  If clipping is done during a molt, then some of the clipped feathers may still continue to grow out.

·  New feathers may also grow in as well. If you wait until the molt is complete there should be a need for only one clipping.

·  However, if your bird is flying, you may not be able to wait and can do multiple clippings.

NAIL TRIMMING

·  Toenail grow continuously.

·  Normal activity is often sufficient to maintain proper length.

·  However, in a cage environment, toenail may grow too long and required period trimming.

·  Overgrown nails can make perching difficult, as well as catch on carpeting or cause feet problems.

·  The nails may also be just very sharp, but not overgrown.

·  This readily felt once a birds is perched on an arm.

·  Cutting the very tips off, and blunting is often necessary.